Planning commission

திட்டக் குழு என்பது நமது தேசத்தை உருவாக்கியவர்களின் பெரும் கனவு. ஆகஸ்ட் 15-ல் செங்கோட்டையில் தேசியக் கொடியினை ஏற்றிவைத்து உரையாற்றிய பிரதமர், தேசிய திட்டக் குழுவைக் கலைத்துவிடுவதாகவும், அதன் இடத்தில் காலத்தின் தேவைக்கேற்ப ஒரு புதிய அமைப்பை உருவாக்க இருப்பதாகவும் அறிவித்தார். 130 கோடி மக்களை உள்ளடக்கி, பல சமூக, வர்க்க, பிரதேச, கலாச்சார வேறுபாடுகளை உடைய, நாட்டில் ஒன்றுபட்ட வளர்ச்சியை உருவாக்குவதில் கடந்த 60 ஆண்டுகளுக்கு மேல் பெரும் பங்கு வகித்த ஒரு தேசிய நிறுவனத்தை, தகுந்த தயாரிப்பும் மாற்று ஏற்பாடுகளும் இல்லாத சூழ்நிலையில் ‘எடுத்தேன் கவிழ்த்தேன்’ என்று முடக்குவது சரியா என்ற கேள்வி பல தரப்புகளிலும் எழுந்துள்ளது. தேசிய திட்டக் குழு என்பது ஓர் அரசுத் துறை சார்ந்த அலுவலகமல்ல. அதனுடைய நீண்ட வரலாற்றை அறிந்தவர்கள், சுதந்திர இந்தியாவை உருவாக்கத் தங்கள் உயிரைத் தியாகம் செய்த அற்புதமான தலைவர்களின் ஏக்கமும் கனவும் அது என்று தெரிந்துகொள்வார்கள். தேசிய திட்டக் குழு1951-ல் உருவாக்கப்பட்டாலும், அந்த சிந்தனையின் கரு சுதந்திரத்துக்கு முன்பே உருவானது. 1938-ல் அகில இந்திய காங்கிரஸ் தலைவராகத் தேர்ந்தெடுக்கப்பட்ட சுபாஷ் சந்திர போஸிடம் விஞ்ஞானி பி.சி. மகலானோபிஸ் ஒரு வினாவை எழுப்பினார். “அரசியல் சுதந்திரம் பெற்ற பின்பு, இந்த நாட்டு ஏழை மக்களுக்கு சமூக, பொருளாதாரச் சுதந்திரத்தை உறுதிப்படுத்தும் முன்னேற்றத்தை எப்படித் தரப்போகிறீர்கள் ? அதற்கு என்ன திட்டம் வைத்திருக்கிறீர்கள்?” என்று கேட்டார். திகைத்துப்போன போஸ் அவரிடமே “என்ன செய்ய வேண்டும் என்று சொல்லுங்கள்” என்று கேட்டார். அப்போது மகலானோபிஸ், “இந்தியாவைப் போன்ற ஒரு பரந்த தேசத்தின் ஒட்டுமொத்த வளர்ச்சிக்கு நீண்ட காலத் திட்டம் ஒன்று தயாரிக்கப்பட்டு, ஒவ்வொரு கட்டத்திலும் அட்டவணைப்படி அந்தத் திட்டம் நிறைவேற்றப்படுகிறதா என்று மேற்பார்வையிட்டுத் தகுதியான ஆலோசனைகள் வழங்க விஞ்ஞானிகள், பொருளாதார நிபுணர்கள், தொழில்முனைவோர், அரசியல் தலைவர்கள் அடங்கிய ஓர் அமைப்பு வேண்டும்” என்று சொல்லி திட்டமிடுதலின் அவசியத்தை காங்கிரஸ் தலைவர்களுக்கு விளக்கினார். அதன் அவசியத்தை உணர்ந்த சுபாஷ் சந்திர போஸ், கர்நாடக மாநிலத்தைச் சார்ந்த விஞ்ஞானி விஸ்வேஸ்வரய்யா தலைமையில் ‘தேசிய திட்டக் குழு’வை அமைத்தார். ஒரு விஞ்ஞானி தலைவராக இருப்பதைவிட இந்திய மக்களின் அபிலாஷைகளையும் தேவைகளையும் உணர்வுகளையும் புரிந்துகொண்ட ஒரு அரசியல் தலைவர்தான் தலைவராக இருக்க வேண்டும் என்று மகலானோபிஸ் சொன்னதற்கு இணங்க விஸ்வேஸ்வரய்யா மனமுவந்து தனது பதவியை ராஜினாமா செய்த பிறகு, நேரு அதற்குத் தலைவராக ஆனார். 1951-ல் உருவாக்கப்பட்ட தேசிய திட்டக் குழுவுக்குப் பிரதமர் நேருவே தலைவராக இருந்தார். முரண்பாடுகள் நிறைந்த தேசத்தின் முரண்பாடுகளை அகற்றவும், நாடெங்கிலும் மக்களிடையேயும் பிரதேசங்களிடையேயும் இருந்த ஏற்றத்தாழ்வுகளைச் சரிசெய்யவும், வாய்ப்புகள் மறுக்கப்பட்டவர்களைத் தூக்கி நிறுத்தவும் தேசிய திட்டக் குழு வரலாற்றுப் புகழ்மிக்க முயற்சிகள் பலவற்றை மேற்கொண்டது, இன்று திட்டக் குழுவின் மரண உத்தரவில் கையெழுத்திட்டிருப்பவர்களுக்குச் சில வரலாற்று உண்மைகள் தெரிந்தாக வேண்டும்! முதல் மூன்று ஐந்தாண்டுத் திட்டங்களின்போது நிகழந்தவை திட்டக் குழுவின் பொற்காலத் தயாரிப்புகள். தொலைநோக்குப் பார்வை தன்னலமற்ற அணுகுமுறையும் தொலைநோக்குப் பார்வையும், உலக அறிவும் நிரம்பப்பெற்றவர்களாக இருந்த பல சாதனையாளர்கள் திட்டக் குழுவில் அங்கம் வகித்து அதன் பணியைச் செழுமைப்படுத்தினார்கள். அரசு இயந்திரத்தை எந்த வகையிலும் சாராத தன்னாட்சி அமைப்பாகத் திட்டக் குழு இயங்கியது. அரசுத் துறைகளின் வழக்கமான ‘செக்குமாடு’அணுகுமுறை, எதிர்மறைச் சிந்தனை, எஜமானப் பார்வை இல்லாமல் தன் செயல்பாட்டை அமைத்துக்கொண்டது. காங்கிரஸ் இயக்கத்தின் தத்துவங்களோடும் சிந்தனைகளோடும் மிகப்பெரும் கருத்து வேறுபாடுகள் கொண்டவர்கள்கூட திட்டக் கமிஷனில் இடம்பெற்றிருந்தனர். வி.டி. கிருஷ்ணமாச்சாரி, அசோக் மேத்தா, மகலானோபிஸ், பீதாம்பர்பந்த் போன்ற அறிஞர்கள் தத்துவச் சிந்தனைகளையும் அறிவியல் தொழில்நுட்பத்தையும் ஒன்றிணைத்தனர். கால்பிடுரய்த், நிக்கோலஸ் ஜார்ஜ் சூசவ், ரோஜன், ஈ.எஃப். ஷுமாக்கர், காலக்கி போன்றவர்கள் ஆலோசகர்களாக இருந்து, உலகம் முழுவதுமிருந்து திரட்டிய அனுபவங்களை நமது திட்டக் குழுவோடு பகிர்ந்துகொண்டார்கள். இத்தகைய உலக அறிஞர்களோடு காந்திய, சர்வோதயச் சிந்தனையாளர்களான ஜே.சி. குமரப்பா போன்றவர்களும் அமர்ந்து இந்தியாவின் முன்னேற்றத்துக்குத் திட்டங்களைத் தீட்டினார்கள். ஒருமுறை, திட்டக் குழு அலுவலகமான யோஜனா பவனுக்கு அதன் உறுப்பினர் ஜே.சி. குமரப்பா வாடகைக்குப் பிடித்த குதிரை வண்டியில் வர, காவலர் அவரை உள்ளே விட மறுத்துவிட்டார். திட்டக் குழு உறுப்பினர் வாடகைக் குதிரை வண்டியில் வருவாரா என்ற சந்தேகம் அவருக்கு. பின்பு, பிரதமர் நேருவுக்குத் தகவல் தரப்பட்டு, அவர் தலையிட்டுக் குதிரை வண்டியை உள்ளே விடச் செய்தாராம். இந்தத் திட்டக் குழுதான் இந்தியா முழுவதும் உள்ள ஜீவ நதிகளில் கட்டப்பட்ட பெரும் அணைகளுக்குத் திட்டம் தந்தது; பெரும் பொதுத்துறை நிறுவனங்களை உருவாக்கியது; கனரகத் தொழிலை வளர்த்தது, சிறு-குறு மற்றும் குடிசைத் தொழில்களுக்கான ஆதாரங்களை உருவாக்கியது; நிலச்சீர்திருத்தம் வேண்டும் என்று வலியுறுத்தி அதற்கான சட்டங்களை இயற்ற வலியுறுத்தியது; தேசிய நெடுஞ்சாலைகள், உயர் அழுத்த மின்பாதைகள், அனல் மின்நிலையங்கள், துறைமுகங்கள், விமான நிலையங்கள் என்று இன்றைய நவீன பாரதம் உருவாகக் களம் அமைத்துத் தந்தது திட்டக் குழுதான். காட்கிலும் தண்டவதேவும் திட்டக் குழுவின் இரண்டு துணைத் தலைவர்களைப் பற்றிச் சொல்லியே ஆக வேண்டும். இந்தியப் பொருளாதாரம் எப்படி இயங்க வேண்டும் என்ற வரைபடத்தைத் தயாரித்தவர்கள் அவர்கள். ஒருவர் பொருளாதார அறிஞர் டி.ஆர். காட்கில். இந்திரா காந்தியின் கீழ் திட்டக் குழுவின் துணைத் தலைவராக இருந்தார். நமது நிதி ஆதாரங்கள் எவ்வித முன்னுரிமையில் செலவிடப்பட வேண்டும் என்ற வரைபடத்தைக் கொடுத்தவர் அவர். மத்திய அரசின் வருவாயும் நிதி ஆதாரங்களும் மாநில அரசுகளுக்கு எப்படிப் பிரித்துக்கொடுக்கப்பட வேண்டும் என்ற சூத்திரத்தை உருவாக்கியவர் அவர். இன்றுவரை அது ‘காட்கில் பார்முலா’ என்றே அழைக்கப்படுகிறது. அஸ்ஸாம், ஜம்மு காஷ்மீர், நாகாலாந்து போன்ற மாநிலங்களைச் சிறப்புவகை மாநிலங்களாக வகைப்படுத்தி, நிதி ஒதுக்கீட்டில் முன்னுரிமை வழங்க வேண்டும் என்ற பரிந்துரையை வழங்கியவர் அவர். மற்றொருவர் சோஷலிஸ்ட் தலைவர் மது தண்டவதே, வறுமைக்கோட்டு எல்லை எப்படி வரையறுக்கப்பட வேண்டும் என்ற சமூகநீதிக் கணிதத்தை முதலில் வழங்கியவர். பிரதமர் தயவில்… கால வெள்ளத்தின் நெருக்கடியிலும், அரசியல் சுயநலவாதிகளின் தாக்குதலிலும் திட்டக் குழு தனது உயர்ந்த அடையாளங்கள் சிலவற்றைத் தொலைத்தது உண்மை. ஆனால், திட்டக் குழு தோற்றுவிக்கப்பட்டதற்கான காரணங்கள் இன்னும் அப்படியே இருக்கின்றன. சமூக ஏற்றத்தாழ்வுகளும், மாநிலங்களின் வளர்ச்சி மற்றும் முன்னேற்ற மாறுபாடுகளும், நிதி ஆதாரங்களைப் பெருக்குவதிலும் - பங்கிட்டுக்கொள்வதிலும் மத்திய-மாநில அரசுகளுக்கு இருக்கின்ற கருத்து வேறுபாடுகளும் முழுமையாக முடிந்தபாடில்லை. பல்வேறு அரசியல் கட்சிகள், பல சித்தாந்தத் தொகுப்பு கள், பல சமூகப் பின்புலங்களைச் சார்ந்தவர்கள், மாறுபாடான தேவைகளையுடையவர்கள் என்று எல்லோ ரையும், எல்லா மாநிலங்களின் முதலமைச்சர்களையும் நிதி ஆதாரங்களுக்காக ஒரு கோரிக்கை மனுவுடன் பிரதமரின் தயவுக்காக அவரது வரவேற்பறையில் காக்க வைக்கும் சூழ்நிலை ஏற்பட்டுவிடக் கூடாது. மத்திய-மாநில நிதிப் பங்கீட்டை மத்திய நிதி அமைச்சரின் தலையசைவுதான் முடிவுசெய்யும் என்ற நிலை வந்துவிட்டால், கூட்டாட்சித் தத்துவம் சிதறிவிடும். திட்டக் குழுவை எடுத்துவிட்டு, பிரதமருக்கும் மத்திய அரசுக்கும் ஆலோசனை வழங்க அறிஞர்கள் அடங்கிய ஒரு ‘சிந்தனைத் தொட்டி’அமைக்கப்படும் என்று கசிய விடப்படும் தகவல்கள் உண்மையானால் அது மிகப் பெரும் துரதிருஷ்டம். பரந்த இந்த தேசத்தின் புவியியல், பொருளியல், சமூகவியல் சார்ந்த புள்ளிவிவரங்களைத் தொகுத்துத் தரும் தகவல் களஞ்சியமாகவும், தொழில் வளர்ச்சி, தொழில்நுட்ப விரிவாக்கங்கள், அடிப்படைக் கட்டுமானப் பணிகள், சமூக வளர்ச்சித் திட்டங்கள், மனிதவள மேம்பாடு போன்றவற்றில் மேலும் பல பரிமாணங்களுடன் 60 ஆண்டுகளுக்கும் மேலாக தேசத்தின் வளர்ச்சிக்குப் பெரும் பங்காற்றிய ஓர் அமைப்பை ஒரே உத்தரவில் அடித்து நொறுக்குவது புத்திசாலித்தனமான முடிவல்ல. எலிகளுக்குப் பயந்து எஃகுக் கோட்டையை எடுப்பது எப்படிச் சரியாகும்? திட்டக் குழுவை மாற்றியமைக்க வேண்டும் என்பதில் மாற்றுக் கருத்தில்லை. அதற்கு மரணம் மட்டும் தீர்வு என்று சொல்வது நியாயமா? சா. பீட்டர் அல்போன்ஸ், முன்னாள் நாடாளுமன்ற உறுப்பினர்.

UPSC Civil Services: Political Science Prelims Papers

UPSC Civil Services: Political Science Prelims Papers

Every year the Union Public Service Commission conducts the civil services examination for the prestigious posts of IAS, IPS, IFS, etc. The exam is considered to be one of the toughest ones in our country. Every year lakhs of students sit for the exam. The exam is held in two parts. The first part is the preliminary exam, passing which the candidates are eligible to sit for the mains. Students can choose Political Science as an optional subject for the prelims. The pattern of the prelims is given below.
The exam of Political Science is two hours in time duration and the maximum marks are 300. The questions are 120 in number and are all multiple choice types. All the questions are of equal marks. The questions are given four alternative answers out of which only one is correct. Students have to mark only one answer in the separate answer sheet provided. Negative marking is also there in the exam. For each wrong answer one third of the marks for that question will be deducted. For answers left unanswered no marks will be deducted. Multiple answers are also treated as wrong answer and marks will be deducted for it as per the rule.
Links
http://examrace.com/IASPrelims2010PoliticalSciencePaper.aspx
http://examrace.com/iaspre09polsc.aspx
http://examrace.com/IASpre_polsc_07.aspx
http://www.civilserviceindia.com/upsc_questions/POLITICAL_SCIENCE_PRELIMS_2005.pdf
http://www.civilserviceindia.com/upsc_questions/Political-Science%202003Solved.htm
http://visionias.files.wordpress.com/2008/05/political-science-ias-pre-2008-question-paper.pdf
http://visionias.files.wordpress.com/2008/07/political-science-prelim-2007-question-paper.pdf
http://www.scribd.com/doc/28132183/Upsc-POLITICAL-SCIENCE-Prelims-Exam-Paper
http://exams.qoney.com/political-science-solved-paper-upsc-civil-services-prelims-2009-exam-mcq-political-science-quiz/

Rules of Procedure and Conduct of Business in Lok Sabha

Rules of Procedure and Conduct of Business
in
Lok Sabha

Chapter XXVIIGENERAL RULES OF PROCEDURE NOTICES Mode of giving notice 332. (1) Every notice required by these rules shall be given in writing addressed to the Secretary-General and signed by the member giving notice, and shall be left at the Parliamentary Notice Office which shall be kept open for this purpose between the hours to be notified from time to time on every day except Sunday or a public holiday. (2) Notices left at the Parliamentary Notice Office after the hours notified under sub-rule(1) shall be treated as given on the next open day. Contingent notice 333. (1) A member may give notice of a motion or resolution or Bill which he may desire to be taken up on the conclusion of other business on which that motion is contingent and if such a notice is admitted by the Speaker it may be included in the list of business under the heading; contingent notice of motion or resolution or Bill, as the case may be (2) A contingent notice shall be in such form as the Speaker may prescribe and shall be taken up in the House only after the business on which the notice is contingent is disposed of. Circulation of notices and papers to members 334. (1) The Secretary-General shall make every effort to circulate to each member a copy of every notice or other paper which is required by these rules to be made available for the use of members. (2) A notice or other paper shall be deemed to have been made available for the use of every member if a copy thereof is deposited in such manner and in such place as the Speaker may, from time to time, direct. Prohibition of advance publicity of notices 334A. A notice shall not be given publicity by any member or other person until it has been admitted by the Speaker and circulated to members: Provided that a notice of a question shall not be given any publicity until the day on which the question is answered in the House. Lapse of pending notices on prorogation of House 335. On the prorogation of the House, all pending notices, other than notices of intention to move for leave to introduce a Bill, shall lapse and fresh notices shall be given for the next session: Provided that a fresh notice shall be necessary of intention to move for leave to introduce any Bill in respect of which sanction or recommendation has been granted under the Constitution if the sanction or recommendation, as the case may be, has ceased to be operative. Motion, resolution or amendment moved not to lapse 336. A motion, resolution or an amendment, which has been moved and is pending in the House, shall not lapse by reason only of the prorogation of the House Power of Speaker to amend notices 337. If in the opinion of the Speaker, any notice contains words, phrases or expressions which are argumentative, unparliamentary, ironical, irrelevant, verbose, or otherwise inappropriate, he may, in his discretion, amend such notice before it is circulated. MOTIONS Repetition of motion 338. A motion shall not raise a question substantially identical with one on which the House has given a decision in the same session. Withdrawal of motion 339. (1) A member who has made a motion may withdraw the same by leave of the House. (2) The leave shall be signified not upon question but by the Speaker taking the pleasure of the House. The Speaker shall ask: 'Is it your pleasure that the motion be withdrawn?' If no one dissents, the Speaker shall say: The motion is by leave withdrawn. But if any dissentient voice be heard or a member rises to continue the debate the Speaker shall forthwith put the motion: Provided that if an amendment has been proposed to a motion, the original motion shall not be withdrawn until the amendment has been disposed of. Adjournment of debate on motion 340. At any time after a motion has been made, a member may move that the debate on the motion be adjourned. Motion in abuse of rules or dilatory motion 341. (1) If the Speaker is of opinion that a motion for the adjournment of a debate is an abuse of the rules of the House, he may either forthwith put the question thereon or decline to propose the question. (2) If the Speaker is of opinion that a motion for re-circulation of a Bill to elicit further opinion thereon is in the nature of a dilatory motion in abuse of the rules of the House inasmuch as the original circulation was adequate or comprehensive or that no circumstance has arisen since the previous circulation to warrant the re-circulation of the Bill, he may, forthwith put the question thereon or decline to propose the question. (3) If the Speaker is of opinion that a motion for recommittal of a Bill to a Select Committee of the House or a Joint Committee of the Houses or circulation or re-circulation of the Bill after the Select Committee of the House or the Joint Committee of the Houses has reported thereon, is in the nature of a dilatory motion in abuse of the rules of the House inasmuch as the Select Committee of the House or the Joint Committee of the Houses, as the case may be, has dealt with the Bill in a proper manner or that no unforeseen or new circumstance has arisen since the Bill emerged from such Committee, he may forthwith put the question thereon or decline to propose the question. Motion to consider policy, situation, statement or any other matter 342. A motion that the policy or situation or statement or any other matter be taken into consideration shall not be put to the vote of the House, but the House shall proceed to discuss such matter immediately after the mover has concluded his speech and no further question shall be put at the conclusion of the debate at the appointed hour unless a member moves a substantive motion in appropriate terms to be approved by the Speaker and the vote of the House shall be taken on such motion. ANTICIPATING DISCUSSION Anticipating discussion 343. No member shall anticipate the discussion of any subject of which notice has been given provided that in determining whether a discussion is out of order on the ground of anticipation, regard shall be had by the Speaker to the probability of the matter anticipated being brought before the House within a reasonable time. AMENDMENTS Scope of amendments 344. (1) An amendment shall be relevant to, and within the scope of, the motion to which it is proposed (2) An amendment shall not be moved which has merely the effect of a negative vote. (3) An amendment on a question shall not be inconsistent with a previous decision on the same question. Notice of amendments 345. Notice of an amendment to a motion shall be given one day before the day on which the motion is to be considered, unless the Speaker allows the amendment to be moved without such notice. Selection of amendments 346. The Speaker shall have power to select the amendments to be proposed in respect of any motion, and may, if he thinks fit, call upon any member who has given notice of an amendment to give such explanation of the object of the amendment as may enable him to form a judgment upon it. Putting of amendments 347. The Speaker may put amendments in such order as he may think fit: Provided that the Speaker may refuse to put an amendment which in his opinion is frivolous. COMMUNICATION OF PRESIDENT'S RECOMMENDATION Mode of communication of recommendation 348. Every sanction or recommendation by the President shall be communicated to the Secretary-General by a Minister in the following terms:- 'The President having been informed of the subject matter of the proposed Bill, motion, demand for grant or amendment accords his previous sanction to the introduction of the Bill or the moving of the amendment or recommends the introduction of the Bill or the moving of the motion, demand for grant or amendment in the House or recommends to the House the consideration of the Bill.' It shall be printed in the proceedings of the House in such manner as the Speaker may direct. RULES TO BE OBSERVED BY MEMBERS Rules to be observed by members in House 349. Whilst the House is sitting, a member- (i) shall not read any book, newspaper or letter except in connection with the business of the House; (ii) shall not interrupt any member while speaking by disorderly expression or noises or in any other disorderly manner; (iii) shall bow to the Chair while entering or leaving the House, and also when taking or leaving his seat; (iv) shall not pass between the Chair and any member who is speaking; (v) shall not leave the House when the Speaker is addressing the House; (vi) shall always address the Chair; (vii) shall keep to his usual seat while addressing the House; (viii) shall maintain silence when not speaking in the House; (ix) shall not obstruct proceedings, hiss or interrupt and shall avoid making running commentaries when *1[another member is speaking;] (x) shall not applaud when a stranger enters any of the Galleries, or the Special Box; *2[(xi) shall not shout slogans in the House;] *3[(xii) shall not sit or stand with his back towards the Chair;] (xiii) shall not approach the Chair personally in the House. He may send chits to the officers at the Table, if necessary; (xiv) shall not wear to display badges of any kind in the House; (xv) shall not bring or display arms in the House; (xvi) shall not display flags, emblems or any exhi-bits in the House; (xvii) shall not leave the House immediately after delivering his speech; (xviii) shall not distribute within the precincts of Parliament House any literature, questionnaire, pamphlets, press notes, leaflets, etc. not connected with the business of the House; (xix) shall not place his hat/cap on the desk in the House, bring boards in the Chamber for keeping files or for writing purposes, smoke or enter the House with his coat hanging on the arms; (xx) shall not carry walking stick into the House unless permitted by the Speaker on health grounds; (xxi) shall not tear off documents in the House in protest; (xxii) shall not bring or play cassette or tape recorder in the House; and (xxiii) shall avoid talking or laughing in Lobby loud enough to be heard in the House.] Only member called by Speaker entitled to speak 350. When a member rises to speak, his name shall be called by the Speaker. If more members than one rise at the same time, the member whose name is so called shall be entitled to speak. Mode of addressing House 351. A member desiring to make any observations on any matter before the House shall speak from his place, shall rise when he speaks and shall address the Speaker: Provided that a member disabled by sickness or infirmity may be permitted to speak sitting. Rules to be observed while speaking 352. A member while speaking shall not- (I) refer to any matter of fact on which a judicial decision is pending; (ii) *4[make personal reference by way of making an allegation imputing a motive to or questioning the bona fides of any other member of the House unless it be vimperatively necessary for the purpose of the debate being itself a matter in issue or relevant thereto;] (iii) use offensive expressions about the conduct or proceedings of Parliament or any State Legislature; (iv) reflect on any determination of the House except on a motion for rescinding it; (v)reflect upon the conduct of persons in high authority unless the discussion is based on a substantive motion drawn in proper terms; Explanation:-The words 'persons in high authority' mean persons whose conduct can only be discussed on a substantive motion drawn in proper terms under the Constitution or such other persons whose conduct, in the opinion of the Speaker, should be discussed on a substantive motion drawn up in terms to be approved by him; (vi) use the President's name for the purpose of influencing the debate; (vii) utter treasonable, seditious or defamatory words; *5[*** *** ***] (viii) use his right of speech for the purpose of obstructing the business of the House. *6[(ix) make any reference to the strangers in any of the galleries; (x) refer to Government officials by name; and (xi) read a written speech except with the previous permission of the Chair.] Procedure regarding allegation against any person 353. No allegation of a defamatory or incriminatory nature shall be made by a member against any person unless the member has given *7[adequate advance notice] to the Speaker and also to the Minister concerned so that the Minister may be able to make an investigation into the matter for the purpose of a reply: Provided that the Speaker may at any time prohibit any member from making any such allegation if he is of opinion that such allegation is derogatory to the dignity of the House or that no public interest is served by making such allegation. Restriction on quoting speeches made in Council 354. No speech made in the Council shall be quoted in the House unless it is a definite statement of policy by a Minister: Provided that the Speaker may, on a request being made to him in advance, give permission to a member to quote a speech or make reference to the proceedings in the Council, if the Speaker thinks that such a course is necessary in order to enable the member to develop a point of privilege or procedure. Questions to be asked through Speaker 355. When, for the purposes of explanation during discussion or for any other sufficient reason, any member has occasion to ask a question of another member on any matter then under the consideration of the House, he shall ask the question through the Speaker. Irrelevance or repetition 356. The Speaker, after having called the attention of the House to the conduct of a member who persists in irrelevance or in tedious repetition either of his own arguments or of the arguments used by other members in debate, may direct him to discontinue his speech. Personal explanation 357. A member may, with the permission of the Speaker, make a personal explanation although there is no question before the House, but in this case no debatable matter may be brought forward, and no debate shall arise. ORDER OF SPEECHES, RIGHT OF REPLY AND CONCLUSION OF DEBATE Order of speeches and right of reply 358. (1) After the member who moves a motion has spoken, other members may speak to the motion in such order as the Speaker may call upon them. If any member who is so called upon does not speak, he shall not be entitled except with the permission of Speaker, to speak to the motion at any later stage of the debate. (2) Except in the exercise of right of reply or as otherwise provided by these rules, no member shall speak more than once to any motion, except with the permission of the Speaker. (3) A member who has moved a motion may speak again by way of reply, and if the motion is moved by a private member, the Minister concerned may, with the permission of the Speaker, speak (whether he has previously spoken in the debate or not) after the mover has replied: Provided that nothing in this sub-rule shall be deemed to give any right of reply to the mover of an amendment to a Bill or a resolution save with the permission of the Speaker. Conclusion of debate 359. Subject to the provisions of sub-rule (3) of rule 358 the reply of the mover of the original motion shall in all cases conclude the debate. ADDRESS BY SPEAER Address by Speaker 360. The Speaker may himself, or on a point being raised or on a request made by a member, address the House at any time on a matter under consideration in the House with a view to aid members in their deliberations, and such expression of views shall not be taken to be in the nature of a decision. PROCEDURE WHEN SPEAKER RISES Procedure when Speaker rises 361. (1) Whenever the Speaker rises he shall be heard in silence and any member who is then speaking or offering to speak shall immediately resume his seat. (2) No member shall leave his seat while the Speaker is addressing the House. CLOSURE AND LIMITATION OF DEBATE Closure 362. (1) At any time after a motion has been made, any member may move: 'That the question be now put', and unless it appears to the Speaker that the motion is an abuse of these rules or an infringement of the right of reasonable debate, the Speaker shall then put the motion 'That the question be now put'. (2) Where the motion: 'That the question be now put' has been carried, the question or questions consequent thereon shall be put forthwith without further debate: Provided that the Speaker may allow a member any right of reply which he may have under these rules. Limitation of debate 363. (1) Whenever the debate on any motion in connection with a Bill or on any other motion becomes unduly protracted, the Speaker may, after taking the sense of the House, fix a time limit for the conclusion of discussion on any stage or all stages of the Bill or the motion, as the case may be. (2) At the appointed hour, in accordance with the time limit fixed for the completion of a particular stage of a Bill or a motion, the Speaker shall, unless the debate is sooner concluded, forthwith put every question necessary to dispose of all the outstanding matters in connection with that stage of the Bill or the motion. DECISION OF HOUSE Question on motion made 364. A matter requiring the decision of the House shall be decided by means of a question put by the Speaker on a motion made by a member. Proposal and putting of question 365. When a motion has been made, the Speaker shall propose the question for consideration, and put it for the decision of the House. If a motion embodies two or more separate propositions, those propositions may be proposed by the Speaker as separate questions. No Speech after voices collected 366. A member shall not speak on a question after the Speaker has collected the voices both of the Ayes and of the Noes on that Question. DIVISION Procedure regarding division 367. (1) On the conclusion of a debate, the Speaker shall put the question and invite those who are in favour of the motion to say 'Aye' and those against the motion to say 'No'. (2) The Speaker shall then say: 'I think the Ayes (or the Noes, as the case may be) have it.' If the opinion of the Speaker as to the decision of a question is not challenged, he shall say twice: 'The Ayes (or the Noes, as the case may be) have it' and the question before the House shall be determined accordingly. (3) (a) If the opinion of the Speaker as to the decision of a question is challenged, he shall order that the Lobby be cleared. (b) After the lapse of*8 [three minutes and thirty seconds] he shall put the question a second time and declare whether in his opinion the 'Ayes' or the 'Noes' have it. (c) If the opinion so declared is again challenged, he shall direct that the votes be recorded either by operating the automatic vote recorder or by using 'Aye' and 'No' Slips in the House or by the Members going into the Lobbies: Provided that, if in the opinion of the Speaker, the Division is unnecessarily claimed, he may ask the members who are for 'Aye' and those for 'No' respectively to rise in their places and, on a count being taken, he may declare the determination of the House. In such a case, the names of the voters shall not be recorded. Division by automatic vote recorder 367A. (1) Where the Speaker directs under clause (c) of sub-rule (3) of rule 367 that the votes be recorded by operating the automatic vote recorder, it shall be put into operation and the members shall cast their votes from the seats respectively allotted to them by pressing the buttons provided for the purpose. (2) After the result of the voting appears on the indicator board, the result of the Division shall be announced by the Speaker and it shall not be challenged. (3) A member who is not able to cast his vote by pressing the button provided for the purpose due to any reason considered sufficient by the Speaker, may, with the permission of the Speaker, have his vote recorded verbally by stating whether he is in favour of or against the motion, before the result of the Division is announced. (4) If a member finds that he has voted by mistake by pressing the wrong button, he may be allowed to correct his mistake provided he brings it to the notice of the Speaker before the result of the Division is announced. Division by distribution of 'Aye' and 'No' slips 367AA. (1) Where the Speaker directs under clause (c) of sub-rule (3) of rule 367 that the votes shall be recorded by members on 'Aye' and 'No' slips, the Division Clerks shall supply to each member at his seat, an 'Aye' or 'No' slip, according to the choice indicated by him. A member shall record his vote on the slip by signing and indicating his Division Number thereon. (2) After the members have recorded their votes, the Division Clerks shall collect the 'Aye' and 'No' slips and bring them to the Table where the votes shall be counted by the Officers at the Table and the totals of 'Ayes' and 'Noes' presented to the Speaker. (3) The result of the Division shall be announced by the Speaker and it shall not be challenged. Division by going into Lobbies 367B. (1) Where the Speaker directs under clause (c) of sub-rule (3) of rule 367 that the votes shall be recorded by the members going into the Lobbies, he shall direct the 'Ayes' to go into the Right Lobby and the 'Noes' into the Left Lobby. In the 'Ayes' or 'Noes' Lobby, as the case may be, each member shall state his Division Number and the Division Clerk, while marking off his number on the Division List, shall simultaneously call out the name of the member. (2) After voting in the Lobbies is completed, the Division Clerks shall bring the Division Lists to the Table when the votes shall be counted by the officers at the Table and the totals of 'Ayes' and 'Noes' presented to the Speaker. (3) The result of the Division shall be announced by the Speaker and it shall not be challenged. (4) A member who is unable to go to the Division Lobby owing to sickness or infirmity may, with the permission of the Speaker, have his vote recorded either at his seat or in the Lobby before the result of the Division is announced. (5) If a member finds that he has voted by mistake in the wrong Lobby, he may be allowed to correct his mistake, provided he brings it to the notice of the Speaker before the result of the Division is announced. (6) When the Division Clerks have brought the Division Lists to the Table, a member who has not upto that time recorded his vote but who then wishes to have his vote recorded may do so with the permission of the Speaker before the result of the Division is announced. PAPERS TO BE LAID ON THE TABLE Papers quoted to be laid 368. If a Minister quotes in the House a despatch or other State paper which has not been presented to the House, he shall lay the relevant paper on the Table: Provided that this rule shall not apply to any documents which are stated by the Minister to be of such a nature that their production would be inconsistent with public interest: Provided further that where a Minister gives in his own words a summary or gist of such despatch or State paper it shall not be necessary to lay the relevant papers on the Table. Authentication and treatment of papers laid 369. (1) A paper or document to be laid on the Table shall be duly authenticated by the member presenting it. (2) All papers and documents laid on the Table shall be considered public. Document containing advice or opinion disclosed to be laid 370. If, in answer to a question or during debate, a Minister discloses the advice or opinion given to him by any officer of the Government or by any other person or authority, he shall ordinarily lay the relevant document or parts of document containing that opinion or advice, or a summary thereof on the Table. [For rules relating to Committee on Papers laid on the Table, see Chapter XXVI of these rules.] OBJECTION TO VOTE OF A MEMBER ON GROUNDS OF PERSONAL, PECUNIARY OR DIRECT INTEREST Objection to vote of a member 371. If the vote of a member in a division in the House is challenged on the ground of personal, pecuniary or direct interest in the matter to be decided, the Speaker may, if he considers necessary, call upon the member making the challenge to state precisely the grounds of his objection and the member whose vote has been challenged to state his case and shall decide whether the vote of the member should be disallowed or not and his decision shall be final: Provided that the vote of a member or members is challenged immediately after the division is over and before the result is announced by the Speaker. Explanation.- For the purposes of this rule the interest of the member should be direct, personal or pecuniary and separately belong to the person whose vote is questioned and not in common with the public in general or with any class or section thereof or on a matter of State policy. STATEMENT BY MINISTER Statement by Minister 372. A statement may be made by a Minister on a matter of public importance with the consent of the Speaker but no question shall be asked at the time the statement is made. WITHDRAWAL AND SUSPENSION OF MEMBERS Withdrawal of member 373. The Speaker may direct any member whose conduct is, in his opinion, grossly disorderly to withdraw immediately from the House, and any member so ordered to withdraw shall do so forthwith and shall absent himself during the remainder of the day's sitting. Suspension of member 374. (1) The Speaker may, if he deems it necessary, name a member who disregards the authority of the Chair or abuses the rules of the House by persistently and wilfully obstructing the business thereof. (2) If a member is so named by the Speaker, the Speaker shall, on a motion being made forthwith put the question that the member (naming him) be suspended from the service of the House for a period not exceeding the remainder of the session: Provided that the House may, at any time, on a motion being made, resolve that such suspension be terminated.(3) A member suspended under this rule shall forthwith withdraw from the precincts of the House. Automatic Suspension of a member *9 374A. (1) Notwithstanding anything contained in rules 373 and 374, in the event of grave disorder occasioned by a member coming into the well of the House or abusing the Rules of the House persistently and wilfully obstructing its business by shouting slogans or otherwise, such member shall, on being named by the Speaker, stand automatically suspended from the service of the House for five consecutive sittings or the remainder of the session, whichever is less: Provided that the House may, at any time, on a motion being made, resolve that such suspension be terminated.  (2) On the Speaker announcing the suspension under this rule, the member shall forthwith withdraw from the precincts of the House. ADJOURNMENT OF HOUSE OR SUSPENSION OF SITTING DUE TO GRAVE DISORDER Power of Speaker to adjourn House or suspend sitting 375. In the case of a grave disorder arising in the House, the Speaker may, if he thinks it necessary to do so, adjourn the House or suspend any sitting for a time to be named by him POINTS OF ORDER Points of order and decisions thereon 376. (1) A point of order shall relate to the interpretation or enforcement of these rules or such Articles of the Constitution as regulate the business of the House and shall raise a question which is within the cognizance of the Speaker. (2) A point of order may be raised in relation to the business before the House at the moment: Provided that the Speaker may permit a member to raise a point of order during the interval between the termination of one item of business and the commencement of another if it relates to maintenance of order in, or arrangement of business before, the House. (3) Subject to conditions referred to in sub-rules (1) and (2) a member may formulate a point of order and the Speaker shall decide whether the point raised is a point of order and if so give his decision thereon, which shall be final. (4) No debate shall be allowed on a point of order, but the Speaker may, if he thinks fit, hear members before giving his decision. (5) A point of order is not point of privilege. (6) A member shall not raise a point of order - to ask for information; or to explain his position; or when a question on any motion is being put to the House; or which may be hypothetical; or that Division Bells did not ring or were not heard. *10[Raising a matter which is not a point of order 377. A member who wishes to bring to the notice of the House a matter which is not a point of order, shall give notice in writing to the Secretary-General specifying clearly and precisely the text of the matter to be raised. The member shall be permitted to raise it only after the Speaker has given his consent and at such time and date as the Speaker may fix.] *11[Conditions of admissibility 377A. In order that a notice may be admissible it shall satisfy the following conditions:- it shall not refer to a matter which is not primarily the concern of the Government of India; it shall not relate to a matter which has been discussed in the same session or which is substantially identical to the matter already raised by a member under this rule during the session; it shall not exceed 250 words; it shall not raise more than one issue; it shall not contain arguments, inferences, ironical expressions, imputations, epithets or defamatory statements; and it shall not refer to proceedings of a parliamentary/consultative committee.] Time for tabling notices and their validity 377B. (1) Notices received during a week commencing from its first sitting till 10.00 hours on the last day of the week on which the House sits shall be valid for that week. (2) Notices received after 10.00 hours on the last day of the week on which the House sits shall be valid for the next week. Notices received after 10.00 hours and upto 10.30 hours on that day shall be deemed to have been received at the same point of time and these shall be balloted to determine the inter-se priority of members. Notices received subsequently shall be arranged in accordance with the date and time of their receipt. (3) Notices not selected during the week for which they have been tabled, shall lapse at the end of the week: Provided that a notice referred for facts under order of the Speaker shall not lapse till it is finally disposed of. Restriction on raising matters 377C. (1) No member shall raise more than one matter during a week. (2) Only the text approved by the Speaker shall go on record.] MAINTENANCE OF ORDER Speaker to preserve order and enforce decisions 378. The Speaker shall preserve order and shall have all powers necessary for the purpose of enforcing his decisions PROCEEDINGS OF THE HOUSE, PARLIAMENTARY PAPERS AND CUSTODY OF PAPERS Preparation and publication of proceedings 379. The Secretary-General shall cause to be prepared a full report of the proceedings of the House at each of its sittings and shall, as soon as practicable, publish it in such form and manner as the Speaker may, from time to time, direct. Expunction 380. If the Speaker is of opinion that words have been used in debate which are defamatory or indecent or unparliamentary or undignified, he may, in his discretion, order that such words be expunged from the proceedings of the House. Indication in proceedings regarding expunction 381. The portion of the proceedings of the House so expunged shall be marked by asterisks and an explanatory footnote shall be inserted in the proceedings as follows: 'EXPUNGED AS ORDERED BY THE CHAIR' Printing and publication of Parliamentary papers 382. (1) The Speaker may authorise printing, publication, distribution or sale of any paper, document or report in connection with the business of the House or any paper, document or report laid on the Table or presented to the House or a Committee thereof. (2) A paper, document or report printed, published, distributed or sold in pursuance of sub-rule (1) shall be deemed to have been printed, published, distributed or sold under the authority of the House within the meaning of clause (2) of article 105 of the Constitution. (3) If a question arises whether a paper, document or report is in connection with the business of the House or not, the question shall be referred to the Speaker whose decision shall be final. Custody of papers 383. The Secretary-General shall have custody of all records, documents and papers belonging to the House or any of its Committees or Lok Sabha Secretariat and he shall not permit any such records, documents or papers to be taken from the Parliament House without the permission of the Speaker. CHAMBER OF THE HOUSE Restriction on use of Chamber of House 384. The Chamber of the House shall not be used for any purpose other than the sittings of the House. ADMISSION OF OFFICERS OF THE COUNCIL Admission of officers of Council to House 385. Any officer of the Secretarial staff of the Council shall be entitled to admission to the House during any sitting of the House. ADMISSION, WITHDRAWAL AND REMOVAL OF STRANGERS Admission of strangers 386. The admission of strangers during the sittings of the House to those portions of the House which are not reserved for the exclusive use of members shall be regulated in accordance with orders made by the Speaker. Withdrawal of strangers 387. The Speaker may, whenever he thinks fit, order the withdrawal of strangers from any part of the House. Removal and taking into custody of strangers 387A. An officer of the Secretariat authorised in this behalf by the Speaker shall remove from the precincts of the House or take into custody, any stranger whom he may see, or who may be reported to him to be, in any portion of the precincts of the House which is reserved for the exclusive use of members, and also any stranger who, having been admitted into any portion of the precincts of the House, misconducts himself or wilfully infringes the regulations made by the Speaker under rule 386 or does not withdraw when the strangers are directed to withdraw under rule 387 while the House is sitting BUSINESS PERTAINING TO STATE UNDER PRESIDENT'S RULE Application of rules to business pertaining to State under President's Rule 387B. These rules shall, with such variations or modifications, as the Speaker may from time to time make, apply to the business pertaining to a State, the powers of whose Legislature are, by virtue of a Proclamation issued by the President under article 356 of the Constitution exercisable by or under the authority of Parliament. SUSPENSION OF RULES Suspension of rules 388. Any member may, with the consent of the Speaker, move that any rule may be suspended in its application to a particular motion before the House and if the motion is carried the rule in question shall be suspended for the time being. RESIDUARY POWERS Residuary powers 389. All matters not specifically provided for in these rules and all questions relating to the detailed working of these rules shall be regulated in such manner as the Speaker may, from time to time, direct. -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- [*1] Sub. by L.S. Bn. (II) dated 9-5-1989, para 2930. [*2] Subs. ibid. [*3] Added ibid. [*4] Sub. by L.S. Bn. (II) dated 9-5-1989, para 2930. [*5] Omitted by L.S. Bn. (II) dated 9-5-1989, para 2930. [*6] Added ibid. [*7] Sub. ibid. [*8] Sub. by L.S. Bn. (II) dated 9-5-1989, para 2930. *9 Added by L.S. Bn.(II) dt. 5.12.2001, Para 2430 [*10] Sub. by L.S. Bn. (II) dated 9-5-1989, para 2930.[*11] Added by L.S. Bn. (II) dated 9-5-1989, para 2930. source  - parliamentofindia.nic.in

Gandhi in indian freedom struggle

Mahatma Gandhi is the most influential and revered of all the leaders who participated in the freedom struggle of India.

In January 1915, Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi returned to India after spending two decades in South Africa.

It was in South Africa he first focused the distinctive techniques of non-violent protest known as Satyagraha and Promoted harmony between religions.

On Gokhale’s advice he spent one year traveling around British India to know the land and its peoples.

His first major public appearance was at the opening of the Banaras Hindu University in February 1916.

Here in his speech Gandhiji Charged the Indian elite with a lack of concern for the labouring poor .

He successfully organized Satyagraha at Champaran (Bihar in 1917);

Ahmedabad and Kheda in 1918. In 1919 Gandhiji called for a century wide campaign against the “Rowlatt Act”.

It was the Rowlatt Satyagraha that made Gandhiji a truly national leader.

In 1920 After Jalianwala Bagh Massacre he called for a campaign of non cooperation with British Rule and joined hands with the Khilafat movement.

The British Raj was shaken to its foundations for the first time since the Revolt of 1857. Non-cooperation movement was suspended in 1922 after Chauri-Chaura incident.

Causes of Gandhiji’s popularity among Indians-he dressed like them lived like them and speak their language.

Mahatma Gandhi was released from prison in February 1924 devoted himself in constructive work like promotion of home-spun cloth khadi, abolition of untouchability, Hindu-Muslim unity etc.

In 1928 Gandhiji began to think of reentering politics. After the failure of Simon Commission in its annual session at Lahore Congress demanded Purna Swaraj and decided to observe 26th January 1930 as Independence Day.

12th March 1930-Dandi Satyagraha, Salt March. On 6th April 1930 broke the salt law.

Across large parks of India peasants breached forest laws, factory workers went on the strike, lawyers boycotted courts and students refused to attend government run educational institutions.

1930- First Round Table conference- Gandhiji did not attend.

1931- Gandhi-Irwin pact, 2nd Round Table Conference- Gandhi attended but it failed.

1935- Government of India Act 1937- Provincial Election, Congress formed ministries in 8 out of 11 provinces.

1939- World War II broke out, Individual Satyagraha.

1940- Two Nation Theory put forward by Jinnah.

1942- Failure of Cripps Mission.

9th August 1942- Quit India Movements by Gandhiji. Gandhiji along with all prominent leaders sent to jail.

1946- Cabinet Mission- Failed to get the Congress and the League to agree on the federal system.

16th August 1946- Direct Action Day and Communal riots in Bengal, Bihar, U.P and Punjab.

1947- Mountbatten was appointed as viceroy.

15th August 1947- Formal transfer of power, announcement of partition and India got her independence.

The last heroic days of Gandhiji:- -

On 15th August 1947 Gandhiji was not at Delhi to witness the festivities. He was at Calcatta and undertook a 24 hour fast. - Due to initiative of Gandhiji and Nehru Congress passed a resolution on the rights of the minorities.

After working to bring peace to Bengal Gandhiji shifted to Delhi from where he hoped to move on to the riot-torn districts of Punjab.

On 30th January 1948 Gandhiji was shot dead by Nathuram Godse.

Sources to know more about Gandhiji:-

1. Public voice and private scripts.
2. Series of Personal letters published by Hand him Gandhi ji in his journal Harijan.
3. A bunch of old letters edited by Nehru.
4. Fortnightly Reports of the Home Department.

1857 revolt rebels

1. Why did the Indian think during British period that their religion was in danger? 
 Ans. 
(i) Conservative Indians were angered by the various social reforms initiated by the British. The abolition of sati, legalizing of widow remarriages were regarded as unwanted interference in Indian Social.    
(ii) Indian sentiments were also hurt by the Christian Missionaries.    
(iii) In 1850, the government passed the Hindu property law under which even after converting to Christianity one could inherit one's ancestral property.    
(iv) The people's resentment was further fuelled by the Maulvis and Brahmins whose cry that their respective religions were in danger cloaked their selfish interests as these classes now lost their former importance.

 2. What was the system of Subsidiary Alliance? How did it help the Britishers to consolidate their position in India?  
 Ans. The Subsidiary Alliance was a Boat of agreement between the British and on Indian ruler on the basis of Mutual understanding for performing administrative, military and political function. Provisions of the Subsidiary Alliance:
 (i) The Indian ruler accepting the Alliance would not enter into alliance with any other power.
 (ii) Would not declare was against any power without permission of the British.
 (iii) World allows the British resident to stay in his state.
 (iv) Would acknowledge the Britishers as the paramount power.
 (v) Would maintain some British force at his own expense in his state.
 (vi) In return for accepting all these condition, the British would protect the Indian ruler from internal and external danger.

 Advantages of the Subsidiary System to the British.
 (i) The British were able to raise army at the expense of the Indian rulers.
 (ii) They were able to raise army at the expense of the Indian rulers. 
(iii) Successful in checking the French.
 (iv) Increased their control without waging war.
 (v) Chances of revolts on the part of Indian ruler were minimised.

Thinkers beliefs - indian culture

CBSE Assignment for Class XII History -Thinkers Beliefs and Buildings Cultural Development. Based on CBSE and CCE guidelines. The students should read these basic concepts to gain perfection which will help him to get more marks in CBSE examination. Thinkers, Beliefs and Buildings, Cultural Developments (600 BCE to 600 CE) Q.1 Why had Magadha become the centre of the new religious movement? Ans. (i) The people of Magadha responded readily to the Budhism because they were looked down upon the orthodox Brahmanas.        (ii) The role of the rulers of the Magadha. They took keen interest on spreading the religion in India as well in other countries.        (iii) The wealth of Magadha also helped in spreading new religious movements. Q.2 How far the Indian Rulers were responsible for the preservation of the Stupa of Sanchi? Ans. The role played by Rulers of India special the rulers of Bhopal could protect the many monuments. The role of the kings of Bhopal for protection of Sanchi monuments is as under. (i) In nineteenth century Europeans were very much interested in structure at Sanchi. In fact, the French requested Shahjehan Begum for permission to take away eastern gateway, which was the best preserved, to be displayed in a Museum in French. For a while some Englishmen also wished to do the same but fortunately both the French and the English were satisfied with carefully prepared plaster cast copies and the originalremained at the site, part of the Bhopal state. (ii) The ruler of Bhopal, Shahjehan Begum and her successor Sultan Jehan Begum provided money for preservation of the ancient site. She funded the Museum that was built there as well as the guest house where she lived. She funded the publication of the volumes as well. (iii) So if the Stupa complex has survived, it is in no small measure due to wise decisions of Begums and to good luck in escaping from the eyes of railway and to carry away to the Museums of Europe. Q.3 Why do you think the Budha advised his followers to be lamps unto yourselves? Ans. We think the Budha advised his followers to be lamps unto yourselves because he regarded the social world as the creation of human according to him is has no divine origin. Therefore he advised rulers and chief of the families to be human and athetical according to him. Only individual efforts were expected to transformed social relation. It was also expected to lead to self realisation and nirbhan, literally the blowing out of the ego and desire, and thus and the cycle of suffering for those who renounced the world. According to Budhist tradition, his last words to his followers were "I am reaching the end to my life."

Buddha - jain difference

Buddhism & Jainism The school of Buddhism evolved in the eastern part of India in 563 BCE. More or less at the same time (in & around 550 BCE) another school, Jainism, with almost similar thoughts, was developing in the same part of India. The founder of Jainism, Lord Mahavira was a contemporary of Lord Buddha, the founder of Buddhism and even the Buddhist texts called Lord Mahavira 'an enlightened being'. In the sixth century BCE and the preceding era, when both the schools of thought were developing and spreading their horizon, no rivalry seemed to have existed between them. This was because of the fact that both the religions almost believed in the same facts and philosophy of life. However, both differed on some of the views such as salvation and soul which led to their separate ways. Similarities Between Buddhism And Jainism On God Buddhism : The original Buddhist doctrine does not entail any godly figures, though the later Buddhist sects introduced some Godly figures. The Buddhists believe in the Godlike figures or the Bodhisattvas, who take interest in the welfare of the world and work for its liberation. Jainism : Alike Buddhism, Jainism also denies the existence of God, though they acknowledge the presence of the Jinas or Kevalins, who are higher than human beings in status but subject to change and evolution. However, unlike the Bodhisattvas, the Kevalins are rather indifferent to the prayers and problems and remain unaffected. On Nirvana Buddhism : In Buddhism, nirvana is freedom from the cycle of rebirth, when a being turns into a state of non-being, or Sunya, looses its identity and becomes nothing. Jainism : In Jainism, nirvana is a state of moksha, where a being looses its identity and is free from the cycle of birth and death. On Liberation Buddhism : The path of liberation in Buddhism goes through good conduct and good deeds, as mentioned in Eightfold path, Four Noble Truths, Five Preceptions and other moral conducts. Jainism : Similarly, the path of liberation in Jainism is to follow right perception, right knowledge, and right conduct. One has to overcome the worldly desires and feelings to attain liberation or to become a perfect soul. On Yogic Practices Buddhism : Buddhism emphasises on the practice of mediation and other forms of Yoga to concentrate on inner self. Jainism : In Jainism as well, meditation and other yogic practices are essential for self purification and liberation. On Non-Violence Buddhism : Buddhism is a peaceful religion with non-violence at the heart of its thoughts and behaviour. Jainism : Non-violence followed in action, thought, and speech is the highest morale in Jainism. Difference Between Buddhism And Jainism On Karma Buddhism : Buddhism believes in the universality of Karma, which is a result of one's action. Jainism : Jainism also believes in the universality of karma and its effect on human beings. But, unlike Buddhism, karma, according to Jainism, is not a mere effect of one's actions, but a real substance that flows into each individual body or jiva. This karmic substance remains with a being until good conduct and self purification eliminates them. On Soul Buddhism : According to Buddhism, soul is an individuality that does exist in plants and animals, but not in non-living or inanimate things. Jainism : According to Jainism, soul is present in every animate and inanimate object of the universe including its elements - earth, water, wind, fire and air. On The Status And Evolution of Individual Beings Buddhism : After Nirvana, there is no soul, but the individuality of an individual that passes into nothingness, which is beyond any description and speculation. Jainism : After Nirvana, the soul continues to remain as an individual soul, but in the highest state of purity and enlightenment. Survival And Disappearence : Over a period of time, while Buddhism disappeared from the Indian soil, Jainism survived in India, with its teachings intact, mostly untouched by the overwhelming philosophy and practices of Hinduism, at the same time imparting to the later some of its noblest ideas. Besides, a major difference lies in the dominions of both the religions. Though both, Buddhism and Jainism, originated and developed individually in the same geographical area of India, but difference lies in their spread. While Buddhism crossed the frontiers of its motherland and went to other parts of the Indian subcontinent, Central Asia, far eastern countries, and parts of North America and Europe as well, whereas Jainism, on the other hand, remained confined to India, the land of its origin.

Difference between buddhism and jainism

Buddhism Jainism Founder Gautama Buddha (born as Prince Siddhartha) Mahavira. Place of origin Nepal, India India. Place of worship Monasteries, nunneries, pagodas and temples. Temple Goal of religion To attain enlightenment and be released from the cycle of rebirth and death, thus attaining Nirvana. To gain liberation, adopt a path of non-violence towards all living beings. Practices Practices of the Threefold Training: Morality, Concentration, and Wisdom. Non violence Literal Meaning Buddhists mean those who follow the teachings of the Buddha To become a Jina(liberated soul). Status of women No gender bias in Buddhism. In the Discourse related to householders, named 'Tein-gala-wada', certain duties and obligations were mentioned and applied to specific gender i.e. duties of a husband to a wife and vice versa, by the Buddha. Women can become nuns. Use of statues and pictures Common Common. Clergy Monks and Nuns, who unitedly and exactly follow the teachings of the Buddha under the name 'Sangha'. Monks, nuns. Birth of Jesus Not relevant to Buddhism. N/A. Second coming of Jesus Irrelevant to Buddhism. Pure Buddhism perfectly rejects such kinds of irrelevant concepts or ideas. N/A. Death of Jesus Not relevant to Buddhism N/A. Status of Adam Not relevant to Buddhism and this was merely a created concept which seemed to be imaginary to Buddhists. N/A. View of the Buddha Founder of Buddhism or the Four Noble Truths N/A. sects Theravada, Mahayana and Vajrayana, and so on. Digambara, Svetambara. Principle This life is suffering, and the only way to escape from this suffering is to dispel one's cravings and ignorance by practising the Eightfold Path. Respect all living things. Time of origin 2,500 years ago, circa 563 B.C.E. (Before Common Era) Approx.500 B.C. Abrahamic Lineage N/A. N/A. About Following the teachings of the Buddha Following the teachings of Mahavira. Rites Generally common. Generally common. Religion which atheists may still be adherents of Buddhists deny the existence of a God or gods. So Buddhism is not a religion, but the teachings of the Buddha. Yes. Authority of Pope Absolutely irrelevant to Buddhism N/A. Use of statues Used often. Used often. Concept of Deity Instead of deities, Devas or celestial beings are accepted as those suffering in the samsara. Numerous deities known as Tirthenkaras. Authority of Dalai Lama Merely belonging to Tibetan Buddhism and has no relevance to Theravada Buddhism. N/A. Names of God Brahma, Avalokitesvara Ghantakarna Mahavir. Belief of God Buddhism does not believe in a Creator God. Jainism does not believe in a Creator God. Identity of Jesus Not relevant to Buddhism N/A. Resurrection of Jesus N/A N/A. Concept of God A God or gods have always been rejected wholly by Theravada Buddhists. Their only refuges are the three jewels: The Buddha, The Dhamma, and The Sangha. Numerous deities. Followers Buddhists Jains. Virtue on which religion is based upon Compassion Ahimsa (meaning non-violence, or pacifism). Praying to Saints,Mary, and Angel

Syllogism

UP is universal positive
UN is universal negative
PP is particular positive
PN is particular negative

Paintings in india

INDIAN PAINTING

When you go to the market or to a museum you will find many paintings, wall hangings or work done on terracotta. Do you know that these paintings have their origin in our ancient past. They depict the life and customs followed by the people of those times. They also show how the kings and queens dressed or how the courtiers sat in the royal assembly. Literacy records which had a direct bearing on the art of painting show that from very early times painting both secular and religious were considered an important form of artistic expression and was practiced. This need for expression is a very basic requirement for human survival and it has taken various forms since prehistoric times. Painting is one such form with which you may have been acquainted in some way or the other. Indian painting is the result of the synthesis of various traditions and its development is an ongoing process. However while adapting to new styles, Indian painting has maintained its distinct character. “Modern Indian painting in thus a reflection of the intermingling of a rich traditional inheritance with modern trends and ideas”.

OBJECTIVES

After reading this lesson you will be able to:  trace the origin of painting from the prehistoric times;  describe the development of painting during the medieval period;  recognize the contribution of Mughal rulers to painting in India;  trace the rise of distinct schools of painting like the Rajasthani and the Pahari schools;  assess the development of painting in local centres like Kangra, Kulu, and Basoli;  appreciate the contribution of Raja Ravi Varma to Indian painting;  assess the role played by Rabindranath Tagore and Abanindranath Tagore in the emergence of the Bengal School of Art;  appreciate the role specialty of the progressive artists group of Francis Newton Souza;  recognise the contribution of folk art forms like the Mithila painting, Kalamkari painting, Warli painting and Kalighat painting in adding numerous new dimensions in the field of painting.

11.1 ANCIENT PERIOD: ORIGIN

Painting as an art form has flourished in India from very early times as is evident from the remains that have been discovered in the caves, and the literary sources. The history of art and painting in India begins with the pre-historic rock painting at Bhimbetka caves (M.P.) where we have drawings and paintings of animals. The cave paintings of Narsinghgarh (Maharashtra) show skins of spotted deer left drying. Thousands of years ago, paintings and drawings had already appeared on the seals of Harappan civilization. Both Hindu and Buddhist literature refer to paintings of various types and techniques for example, Lepyacitras, lekhacitras and Dhulitcitras. The first was the representation of folklore, the second one was line drawing and painting on textile while the third one was painting on the floor. The Buddhist text Vinayapitaka (4th–3rd century) describes the existence of painted figures in many royal buildings. The play Mudrarakshasa (5th Century A.D.) mentions numerous paintings or Patas. The 6th Century AD text on aesthetics-Kamasutra by Vatsyayana has mentioned painting amongst 64 kinds of arts and says that it was based on scientific principles. The Vishnudharmottara purana (7 th century A.D.) has a section on painting called Chitrasutra which describes the six organs of painting like variety of form, proportion, lustre and portryal of colour etc. Thus, archaeology and literature testify to the flourishing of painting in India from pre-historic times. The best specimens of Gupta paintings are the ones at Ajanta. Their subject was animals and birds, trees, flowers, human figures and stories from the Jataka. Mural paintings are done on walls and rock surfaces like roofs and sides. Cave no. 9 depicts the Buddhist monks going towards a stupa. In cave no. 10 Jataka stories are depicted. But the best paintings were done in the 5 th – 6 th centuries AD during the Gupta age. The murals chiefly depict religious scenes from the life of the Buddha and the Buddhist Jataka stories but we also have secular scene. Here we see the depiction of all aspects of Indian life. We see princes in their palaces, ladies in their chambers, coolies with loads

over their shoulders, beggars, peasants and ascetics, together with all the many beasts, birds and flowers of India. Materials used in the paintings Different materials were used in different types of paintings. Mention of chitra shalas (art gallery) and Shilpasashtra (technical treatises on art) have been made in literary sources. However, the principal colours used were red ochre (dhaturaga), vivid red (kum kum or sindura), yellow ochre (haritala), indigo (blue) lapis lazuli blue, lampblack (kajjala), chalk white (Khadi Mitti) terra verte (geru mati) and green. All these colours were locally available except lapis lazuli which came from Pakistan. Mixed colours e.g. grey were used on rare occasions. Use of colours were decided by the theme and local atmosphere. Remains of Buddhist paintings have also been found at the Buddhist caves at Bagh in the North and at various Deccan and southern sites of sixth and ninth centuries. Though the theme of these paintings is religious but in their inner meanings and spirit, nothing could be more secular, courtly and sophisticated. Though only a small part remains of these paintings but they depict a crowded world of Gods and goddesses semi divine being like kinnars and apsaras, a rich and varied flora and fauna, gaiety, love, grace and charm. Example can be seen in cave 3 at Badami (Karnataka), at temples of Kanchipuram, at Jain caves of Sittanavasal (Tamil Nadu) and the Kailasa and Jain caves at Ellora (eighth and ninth centuries). Many other South Indian temples such as Brihadeshwara temple at Tanjavur are decorated with wall paintings on themes from epics and mythology. If Bagh, Ajanta and Badami represent the classical tradition of the North and Deccan at its best, Sittana Vassal, Kanchipuram, Malayadipatti and Tirunalaipuram show the extent of its penetration in the south. The paintings of Sittanavasal (abode of the Jaina Siddhas) are connected with jaina themes while the other three are Saiva or Vaishnava in theme and inspiration. Despite having a very traditionally secular design and theme the paintings of these times started showing the impact of medieval influences i.e. flat and abstract surfaces on the one hand and linear and somewhat angular designs on the other.

11.2 ART IN MEDIEVAL INDIA D

uring the period of Delhi Sultanate, mural painting has been reported from the royal palaces and royal bed-chambers and mosques. These chiefly depict flowers, leaves and plants. During the time of Iltutmish (1210-36) we have references of paintings. During the time of Alauddin Khalji (1296-1316) we have mural painting, miniature painting (of illustrated manuscripts) and paintings on cloths. During the Sultanate period, we notice the Persian and Arabic influences on Indian painting. We have references of the coming of Persian and Arabic illustrated manuscripts from Iran and the Arab world for the Muslim elites. During this period, we have paintings from other regional states. The decorative paintings of the palace of the Gwalior king Man Singh Tomar impressed both Babur and Akbar.

During 14th– 15th centuries A.D. miniature painting emerged as a powerful movement in Gujarat and Rajasthan and spread to Central, North and Eastern India because of the patronage of rich Jain merchants. Mandu in M.P., Jaunpur in Eastern Uttar Pradesh and Bengal in Eastern India were other great centres of manuscripts illustrated with paintings. In Eastern India, in Bengal, Bihar and Orissa, during the Pala kingdom in the 9 th– 10th entury A.D., a new kind of painting developed called the miniature painting. The miniature, as the name suggests, were small works which were made on perishable materials. In this category, Buddhist, Jain and Hindu manuscripts were illustrated, on palm leaves. They resemble the Ajanta style, but on a miniature scale. These were made on the request of the merchants, who donated them to the temples and monasteries. From the thirteenth century onwards, the Turkish Sultans of northern India brought with them important features of Persian court culture. In the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries illustrated manuscripts of Persian influence were produced at Malwa, Bengal, Delhi, Jaunpur, Gujarat and the Deccan. The interaction of Indian painters with Persian traditions resulted in the synthesis of the two styles evident in the works of the sixteenth century. During the early sultanate period, significant contribution to the art of painting was made by the Jain community of Western India. Illustrated manuscripts of Jain scriptures were presented to temple libraries. These manuscripts depicted the lives and deeds of the Tirthankars. The art of textual illustration got a new look under the Mughals. Akbar and his successors brought revolutionary changes to painting and sensual illustrations. From this period book illumination or individual miniatures replaced wall painting as the most vital form of art. Emperor Akbar patronised artists from Kashmir and Gujarat; Humayun brought two Persian painters to his court. For the first time painters’ names were recorded in inscriptions. Some great painters of this period were Abd-us-Samad Dasawanth and Basawan. Beautiful illustrations are found on the pages of Baburnama and Akbarnama. Within a few years an integrated and dynamic style resulted from the synthesis of Persian and Indian style and the independent style of Mughal painting was developed. Between 1562 and 1577 a series of nearly 1400 cloth paintings were produced representing the new style and were placed in the imperial studio. Akbar also encouraged the art of making portraits. The art of painting reached its climax during the period of Jahangir who himself was a great painter and connoisseur of art. Artists began to use vibrant colours such as peacock blue and red and were able to give three dimensional effects to paintings. Mansur, Bishan Das and Manohar were the most gifted painters of Jahangir’s time. Mansur had made an outstanding portrait of the artist Abul Hasan and specialised in paintings of birds and animals. Though Shah Jahan was more interested in architectural splendours, his eldest son Dara Shikoh patronised painting like his gradfather. He preferred depicting natural elements like plants and animals in his painting. However withdrawal of royal patronage to painting under Aurangzeb led to the dispersal of artists to different places in the country. This helped in the development of the art of painting in Rajasthan and the Punjab hills giving rise to distinct schools of paintings, for example, Rajasthani and Pahari Schools.

These works were painted on a small surface and were called miniature painting. They painted themes drawn from epics, myths and legends. Other themes were Barahmasa (seasons) and Raga mala (melodies). Miniature painting was also developed at local centres like Kangra, Kulu, Basoli, Guler, Chamba, Garhwal, Bilaspur, and Jammu. The rise of the Bhakti movement in India in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries also inspired illustrative texts on the themes of Vaishnava devotional cults. In the pre-Mughal era mural paintings on the walls of temples gained prominence in the northern part of India.

11.3 ART IN THE MODERN PERIOD

In the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries paintings comprised semi westernised local styles which were patronised by British residents and visitors. Themes were generally drawn from Indian social life, popular festivals, and Mughal monuments. These reflected the improvised Mughal traditions. Shaikh Zia-ud-Din’s bird studies for Lady Impey and the portrait paintings of Ghulam Ali Khan for William Fraser and Colonel Skinner are the examples of some excellent paintings of this period. In the later nineteenth century art schools on the European model were established in major Indian cities like Calcutta, Bombay and Madras. Oil paintings of Raja Ravi Varma of Travancore depicting mythological and social themes became highly popular at this time. Rabindranath Tagore, Abanindranath Tagore, E.B. Havell and Ananda Kehtish Coomaraswamy played an important role in the emergence of the Bengal school of Art.

The Bengal School had a great flowering at Shantiniketan where Rabindranath Tagore set up the Kala Bhavan. Talented artists like Nandalal Bose, Binod Behari Mukherjee and Ramkinkar Baij rendered training to aspiring artists. Nandalal often derived inspiration from Indian folk art and also from Japanese painting while Binod Behari Mukerjee was deeply interested in oriental traditions. Jamini Roy, another great painter of this period, drew inspiration from Qrissa’spata painting and Kalighat painting of Bengal. Amrita Shergil, a great painter received education in Paris and Budapest. Considered a prodigy from a Sikh father and Hungarian mother, she painted on Indian themes in bright colours specially Indian women and peasants. Though she died very young, she left behind a rich legacy of Indian paintings. Gradually some deeper changes took place in the thinking of the English educated urban middle class which began to be reflected in the expressions of the artists. Increasing awareness about British rule, ideals of nationalism and the desire for a national identity led to creations which were distinct from earlier art traditions. In 1943, during the period of the second world war Calcutta painters led by Paritosh Sen, Niroda Majumdar and Pradosh Dasgupta formed a group who depicted the condition of the people of India through new visual language, and novel techniques.

Another significant development was the formation of the Progressive Artists Group in Bombay in 1948 under Francis Newton Souza. The group also included S .H. Raza, M.F. Hussain, K.M. Ara, S.K. Bakre and H.A. Gode. This group broke away from Bengal School of Art and represented the modern forceful art of independent India. In the 1970s artists began to critically survey their environment. Daily encounters with poverty and corruption, the political morass of the country, the explosive communal tension, and other urban issues became the themes or subject matter of their works.

The Madras School of Art under Debi Prasad Roy Chowdhury and K.C.S Paniker emerged as an important art centre in post independence period and influenced a new generation of modern artists. Some of the artists who made their mark as modern Indian artists are Tyeb Mehta, Satish Gujral, Krishan Khanna, Manjit Bawa, K.G. Subramaniyan Ram Kumari, Anjolie Ela Menon, Akbar Padamsee, Jatin Das, Jehangir Sabavala and A. Ramachandran. Two government institutions have been set up to promote art, music etc in India. The National Gallery of Modern Art has the largest collection of modern art under one roof. The second one is the Lalit Kala Akademi which recognises and patronizes artists in all fields.

INTEXT QUESTIONS

11.1 Answer the following questions: 1. Which is the famous excavated site in Madhya Pradesh? _______________________________________________________________ 2. What are the three types of painting found in Brahmanical and Buddhist literature in ancient India? _______________________________________________________________ 3. Where are the dhulitchitras paintings normally done? _______________________________________________________________ 4. What was the theme of the Ajanta cave painting? _______________________________________________________________ 5. Give the names of two sites where Buddhist painting of sixth & ninth centuries were found? _______________________________________________________________ Indian 6. What are miniature painting? _______________________________________________________________ 7. Who withdew the royal patronage to painters in the medieval period? _______________________________________________________________ 8. What were the themes in the paintings of the urban English educated artists? _______________________________________________________________ 9. Name the two government institutions set up to promote art, music in India. _______________________________________________________________ 10. Which state is famous for Patta painting? _______________________________________________________________ 11. Name the institution set up by Rabindra Nath Tagore at Shantiniketan? _______________________________________________________________ 12. Why was Raja Ravi Varma of Travancore famous? _______________________________________________________________

11.4 DECORATIVE ART

The artistic expression of the Indian people is not limited to painting on canvas or paper only. Decorative painting on walls of homes even in rural areas is a common sight. Rangoli or decorative designs on floor are made for auspicious occasions and pujas whose stylised designs have been passed on from one generation to the other. The designs are called rangoli in the North, alpana in Bengal, aipan in Uttaranchal, rangavalli in Karnataka, Kollam in Tamilnadu and mandana in Madhya Pradesh. Usually rice powder is used for these paintings but coloured powder or flower petals are also used to make them more colourful. Adorning walls of houses and huts is also an old tradition. The following are some of the examples of folk art of this kind.

11.5 MITHILA PAINTING

Mithila painting also known as Madhubani folk art is the traditional art of the Mithila region of Bihar. They are produced by village women who make three dimensional images using vegetable colour with few earthen colours and finished in black lines on cow dung treated paper. These pictures tell tales especially about Sita’s exile, Ram-Laxman’s forest life, or Indian Painting

depict the images of Lakshmi, Ganesha, Hanuman and others from Hindu mythology. Apart from these women also paint celestial subjects like sun and moon. Tulsi, the holy plant also is to be found in these paintings. They also show court scenes, wedding and social happenings. Drawings in Madhubani pictures are very conceptual. First, the painter thinks and then she “draws her thought”. No pretence is there to describe the figures accurately. Visually they are images that speak in lines and colours and are drawn for some rituals or festivals on household and village walls to mark the seasonal festivals or special events of the life cycle. Intricate flora, animal and birds motifs can also be found along with geometrical designs to fill up the gap. In some cases it is a special practice for mothers to make these art items in advance for their daughters as a marriage gift. These paintings also convey advice on ways to lead a good married life. There is also a social variation in subjects and use of colours. One can identify the community to which the painting belongs from the colours that are used in them. Paintings made by the upper, more affluent classes are colourful while those made by the lower caste people use red and black line work. But the technique of painting is safely and zealously guarded by the women of the village to be passed on by the mother to the daughter. Nowadays Madhubani art is being used as decorative gift items, greeting cards and has become a source of income for local women folk.

11.6 KALAMKARI PAINTING

The literal meaning of Kalamkari is a painting done by kalam (pen). This art got enriched as it came down from one generation to another. These paintings are made in Andhra Pradesh. It is hand painted as well as block printing with vegetable dyes applied on cloth. Vegetable dyes are used for colour in the Kalam Kari work. A small place Sri-Kalahasti is the best known centre of Kalamkari art. This work is also found at Masaulipatnam in Andhra Pradesh. This art is mainly related to decorating temple interiors with painted cloth panels, which was developed in the fifteenth century under the patronage of Vijaynagar rulers. Subjects are adopted from the Ramayana, the Mahabharata and Hindu religious mythology. This art form is a continuous legacy from father to son. After deciding the subject of the painting, scène after scene is painted. Every scene is surrounded by floral decorative patterns. These paintings are made on cloth. They are very durable and flexible in size and made according to theme. Figures of deities have a very rich border embellishments and were created for the temples. Owing to Muslim rulers in Golconda, the Masulipatnam kalamkari was widely influenced by Persian motifs and designs. The outlines and main features are done using hand carved blocks. The finer details are later done using the pen. This art was started on garments, bed covers and curtains. The artists use a bamboo or date palm stick pointed at one end with a bundle of fine hair attached to the other end to serve as brush or pen. The kalamkari dyes are obtained by extracting colours from plant roots, leaves, along with salts of iron, tin, copper, alum etc. Orissa Patachitra Similar to Kalighat Pats, one comes across another kind of Pats which are found in the state of Orissa. The Orissa patachitras, mostly painted on cloth are more detailed and more colourful and most of these depict stories of Hindu gods and goddesses. Phad Paintings Phad is a type of scroll painting. The paintings depicting exploits of local deities are often carried from place to place and are accompanied by traditional singers, who narrate the theme depicted on the scrolls. This type of painting is a most famous painting of Rajasthan, mainly found in the Bhilwara district. Phad painting depicts the heroic deeds of a heroic figure, the daily life of a peasant, rural life, animals and birds, flora and fauna. These paintings are created using bright colours and subtle colours. The outlines of the paintings are first drawn in black and later filled with colours. The main themes of the phad paintings depict the deities and their legends and the stories of erstwhile Maharajas. Raw colours are used for these paintings. The unique features of phad paintings are the bold lines and a two dimensional treatment of figures with the entire composition arranged in sections. The art of painting the phads is approximately 700 years old. It is said that it was originated in Shahpura, some 35 kms from Bhilwara in Rajasthan. The continuous royal patronage gave a decisive impetus to the art which has survived and flourished for generations. Gond Art A very highly sophisticated and abstract form of Art works are also produced by the Santhals in India. The Gond tribe of the Godavari belt who are as old as the Santhals produce figurative works. Batik Print Not all the folk arts and crafts are entirely Indian in their origin. Some of the crafts and techniques have been imported from the Orient like the Batik. But these have now been Indianised and Indian Batik is now a matured art, immensely popular and expensive.

INTEXT QUESTIONS

11.2 Answer the following questions. 1. Match the follwoing decorative art with the state of origin. AB Rangoli Tamil Nadu Alpana Madhya Pradesh

Aipan North India Rangavalli Bengal Kollam Uttaranchal Mandana Karnataka _______________________________________________________________ 2. Through which paintings were advices given to the younger girls? _______________________________________________________________ 3. How is Kalam Kari work done? _______________________________________________________________ 4. What is special about Kalamkari painting? _______________________________________________________________ 5. Which is the most famous place for Kalam Kari art? _______________________________________________________________ 11.7 WARLI PAINTING Warli painting derives its name from a small tribe inhabiting the remote, tribal regions of Maharashtra. These are decorative paintings on floors and walls of ‘gond’ and ‘kol’ tribes’ homes and places of worship. Trees, birds, men and women collaborate to create a composite whole in a Warli painting. These paintings are made mostly by the women as part of their routine at auspicious celebrations. Subjects are predominantly religious with simple and local materials like white colour and rice paste and local vegetable glue on a plain contrasting background, made in a geometric patterns like squares, triangles, and circles. Dots and crooked lines are the units of these composition. Flora and fauna and people’s day to day life also form a part of the painted. The paintings are expanded by adding subject after subject in a spiraling manner. The rhythm of the Warli way of life is beautifully captured in simple images. Unlike other tribal art forms, Warli paintings do not employ religious iconography and is a more secular art form. 11.8 KALIGHAT PAINTING Kalighat painting derives its name from its place of origin Kalighat in Kolkata. Kalighat is a bazaar near the Kali temple in Kolkota. Patua painters from rural Bengal came and settled in Kalighat to make images of gods and goddesses in the early nineteenth century. These paintings on paper made with water colours comprise clear sweeping line drawings using bright colours and a clear background. Subjects are images of Kali, Lakshmi, Krishna, Ganesha, Shiva, and other gods and goddesses. In this process, artists developed a unique

new form of expression, and effectively portray a wide range of subjects commenting on the social life of Bengal. Similar kind of pata paintings may be found in Orissa. This painting form has its roots in the culture upheavds of 19 th century colonial Bengal. As its market grew, the artists began to liberate themselves from the routine depiction of Hindu deities and began to explore the world of contemporary social events in their paintings. The genre derived much inspiration from the introduction of photography, western style theatrical performances, the rise of babu culture in Bengal as a result of the impact of British colonial and administrative system. The emergence of the unique lifestyle of the nouveau riche of Kolkota in response to these diverse influence also inspired these paintings. All these stimuli gave birth to a new imagery that occupied the centre stage of Bengali literature, theatre and visual arts of the period. Kalighat paintings became the best mirror of this cultural and aesthetic shift. Based on their preexisting models of the Hindu deities, the artists created a whole repertoire of images, courtesans, actresses, heroines, pompous babus and conceited dandies, resplendent in their fancy attire and hair styles, smoking pipes and playing the sitar. Kalighat paintings are often referred to as the first works of art that came from Bengal.

11.9 INDIAN HANDICRAFTS

India is a virtual treasure house of the most exquisite handicrafts. Simple objects of daily life have been crafted with delicate design which give expression to the creativity of the Indian artisan. Every state of India can boast of some unique creation which is special to the region, for example, Kashmir is famous for embroidered shawls, carpets, namdar silk and walnut wood furniture. Rajasthan is famous for its tie-and-dye (bandhnï) fabrics, jewellery, using precious stone and jems, blue glazed pottery and minakari work. Andhra Pradesh is famous for Bidri work and Pochampalh saris while Tamil Nadu is well known for bronze sculpture and Kajeevaram silk saris. Mysore is well known for silk, sandalwood items and Kerala is famous for ivory carvings and rosewood furniture. Chanderi and kosa silk of Madhya Pradesh, chikan work of Lucknow, Brocade and silk saris of Benaras, cane furniture and goods of Assam, Bankura terracotta modelling and handloom items of Bengal are just a few examples of unique traditional decorative arts and crafts which constitute the heritage of modern India. These arts have been nurtured for thousands of years and provided employment to a great number of artisans who carried forward the art to the next generation. Thus you see how the Indian artisans with their magic touch can transform a piece of metal, wood or ivory into objects of art.

INTEXT QUESTIONS

11.3 1. Where do you find Warli Painting? _______________________________________________________________ Indian Painting Notes 165 Indian Culture and Heritage Secondary Course MODULE – V Painting, Performing Arts and Architecture 2. Which tribe is famous for Warli paintings? _______________________________________________________________ 3. What is special about Warli painting? _______________________________________________________________ 4. What are some unique creations of art and crafts form of Kashmir state? _______________________________________________________________

WHAT YOU HAVE LEARNT 

The earliest specimens of creative painting in India can be traced to the prehistoric times.  References to paintings of various types and their techniques are available in both Brahminical and Buddhist literature.  Buddhist rock-cut caves of Ajanta in the western Deccan are famous for their wall paintings.  The Mughals began a new era in painting by synthesising Indian painting with the Persian tradition.  The Rajasthani and Pahari schools of painting have contributed significantly in the enrichment of Indian painting.  In the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries, painting comprised of semi-westernised local styles based on Indian themes.  Establishment of art schools on European model in major Indian cities like Calcutta, Bombay and Madras and particularly the emergence of the Bengal school of art were the other milestones in Indian painting during the modern period.  The progressive artists like Francis Newton Souza, S.H. Raza, and M.F. Hussain broke away from the Bengal School of Art to represent the modern forceful art of independent India.  Various folk art forms like Mithila paintings (Madhubani), Kalamkari painting, Warli painting and Kalighat painting took Indian painting to new heights by adding new dimensions to it. TERMINAL EXERCISE 1. How will you describe the development of painting art during the medieval era? Indian Painting Notes Indian Culture and Heritage Secondary Course 166 MODULE – V Painting, Performing Arts and Architecture 2. Define the Madhubani art form. How are the drawings in Madhubani paintings very conceptual? 3. Differentiate the Kalamkari painting with Mithilla painting? 4. Various forms of culture of Bengal is depicted in Kalighat paintings. Elaborate? 5. The Indian artisans with their magic touch can transform a piece of metal, wood or ivory into objects of art. Elaborate. 6. What was the contribution of the Mughals to painting as an art? 7. Write short notes on: i) Kalamkari art ii) Pahari art iii) Kalighat art

ANSWERS TO INTEXT QUESTIONS

11.1 1. Bhimbhetka 2. Lepyacitras, Lekhacitras and dhulitcitras. 3. It is done on the floor 4. They depict scenes from Jataka stories and Buddhist themes. 5. Bagh in the North badami (Karnataka) south 6. On a small surface depicting themes drawn from epics, myths and legends, seasons and Rogamala (melodies) 7. Aurangzeb 8. (a) Evil nature of British rule (b) Ideals of nalienalism (c) Desire for a national identity 9. (a) The National Gallery of Modern Art. (b) Lalit Kala Akademi 10. Orissa state. 11. Kala Bhawan Indian Painting Notes 167 Indian Culture and Heritage Secondary Course MODULE – V Painting, Performing Arts and Architecture 12. Oil painting depicting mythological and social themes became highly famous in modern India. 11.2 1. Rangoli North India Alpana Bengal Aipan Uttranchal Rangavalli Karnataka Kollam Tamil Nadu Mendana Madhya Pradesh 2. Mithila Paintings 3. It uses vegetables dyes 4. These are made on Hindu religions mythodology which scence after scene is painted. It is surrounded by floral decorative patterns on top and bottom. 5. Sri Kalhasti 11.3 1. In Maharshtra state of India 2. Gond and Kol tribes 3. It uses a geometric pattern and the subject after subject are added in a spirating manner. 4. Embroidered shawls, carpets, namdar silks and walnut furniture.